The Situation Of The Carob Tree In Australia
Scientific Name: Ceratonia siliqua
Family: Fabaceae
Based on an article serialized in 'Algarrobo', newsletter of Carobs Australia, 1997-98.
WANATCA Yearbook 22.
Australia
is an important agricultural and livestock producing country that is
growing quickly into one of the most aggressive on the world market.
The agricultural sector provides 4% of the Gross Domestic Product
(GOP), emphasising wool production, meats, cereals, seed oils, sugar,
and fruit. In the last few years, Australians have cultivated crops
such as the almond, grape, pistachio, macadamia, and citrus. These have
increased in cultivation area and, more recently, others such as the
olive and the carob are beginning to be considered as new alternatives
for some states of the country.
The cultivation of the carob in
Australia is still of minor importance although some orchards have been
planted, basically in the states of Western Australia and South
Australia. The history of this leguminous crop in this continent dates
only from the past century.
The first trees were planted around
the year 1850, with seeds imported by Afghan, Italian, Greek and
Spanish immigrants. The carob was to be used as food for fattening
animals which were used for the pulling of cultivation and harvesting
implements. The carob is found very scattered in this country, normally
in the form of isolated trees in streets, gardens and agricultural
developments.
The first commercial orchards were planted in the
1980s and are found in the localities of Burra, Gawler and Loxton
(South Australia), and later extending to other areas such as
Geraldton, Nabawa, York, etc. in the state of Western Australia. At
present there exists some 30,000 widely separated trees, of which half
are productive plants with female flowers, and some 170 ha in young
orchards, basically in four states of Australia (Table 1); Western
Australia with some 110 ha, South Australia with 50 ha, and New South
Wales and Victoria with 5 ha each. The principal cultivation zones are
located between latitudes 20° and 38° S.
Livestock raising has
great importance in Australia, mainly sheep and cattle. This accounts
for the interest in the carob as an ingredient of stock fodder. Also it
is being increasingly used in the human consumption of some foods, when
some components of the fruit are used, such as the "toasted flour of
the pulp" in chocolates, biscuits, fruit coating, etc. The 'locust bean
gum' that is used as a thickener and a natural stabiliser (E-410) is of
great importance in different products (ice cream, sauces, creams,
mayonnaise, etc.). The agroforestry utilisation of this species is
another aspect being studied, emphasising the extensive sheltering of
stock, providing fruit, shade and its association with some herbaceous
cultivation (grass, cereals etc.); and land restoration of warmer zones
to reduce erosion problems and desertification of the soil.
Table 1. Area of orchard trees, isolated trees, and approximate production of the carob in Australia.
| State | Area (ha) | Isolated adult trees
(number) | | Western Australia | 110 | 12,000 | | South Australia | 50 | 10,000 | | New South Wales | 5 | 5,000 | | Victoria | 5 | 3,000 | | Total | 170 | 30,000 | | * Some 15,000 trees are female and therefore productive. |
Recently
some non-governmental organisations, such as the International Tree
Crops Institute (ITCI), Men of the Trees, Land Management Society, etc.
and government centres, such as the South Australian Department of
Primary Industries in Loxton, and a private organisation of producers
(Carob Growers Association in Western Australia) have shown an
outstanding interest in encouraging the cultivation of the carob, its
processing, and the consumption of carob pulp, for human nourishment as
well as for stock fodder.
Production, marketing and industrialisation
The
production of carob in Australia is estimated to be 750 tonnes annually
and is located mainly in the states of Western Australia and South
Australia. The greater part of the crop is destined for stock feed
(sheep, cattle, goats, etc.), located in the same cultivated zones.
Australia is an importer of the dried fruit, especially the toasted
carob-bean flour (carob powder) and the locust bean gum. In the last
few years an average of 100 tonnes of toasted carob-bean flour were
imported, mainly from Spain and Italy, for an approximate value of
AUD$150,000. Annual imports of locust bean gum vary around 800 - 1,000
tonnes, with a purchase price in 1993 of AUD$ 5.06/kg. This corresponds
to a total value of some AUD$5 million (Esbenshade, 1994). Spain
dominates this market, with more than 50% of the exports.
The
distribution chain of carob products is relatively short and generally
it directly links the importer, who uses it in the food industry (ice
cream, chocolates, etc.) with the retailer. There are some exceptions
in the use of distributors that act in the food chains of the different
states, and of wholesalers specialised in supplying health food shops
and local supermarkets. There do not exist industries of carob-bean
traders. However it is anticipated that in the next few years, at least
two will be established in the principal producing states. There
exists, however, several food industries that use the toasted carob
flour as a substitute for cocoa in chocolates and bakery products, and
others that employ locust bean gum for the manufacture of ice cream,
pet food and microwave fast foods.
Ecology
The
zones in Australia where the carob is cultivated are characterised by a
Mediterranean climate, with high temperatures in summer months, low
annual rainfall (250 - 450 mm), mild winters and rare frosts. The lack
of water, in critical periods of the productive vegetative cycle of the
carob, and the frost risk, for example at Burra in South Australia, are
perhaps the principal limiting factors in obtaining good crops in some
potential cultivation zones. The two climatological zones
of the states of South Australia (Loxton) and Western Australia
(Geraldton) where there exist orchards compared with two in Spain
(Tortosa, Catalonia), located in the northern hemisphere.
The
temperatures of Tortosa compare well with those of the Australian zones
producers, with a difference of 6 months because of the southern
hemisphere location. The plantations located in the states of South
Australia (Loxton, Burra, etc) and Western Australia (Geraldton, Perth,
York, etc.) are characterised by a climate similar to the temperate
Mediterranean and subtropical Mediterranean types respectively,
according to the ecological classification of Papadakis.
The
temperatures of Tortosa and Loxton are similar, however, the annual
rainfall of Tortosa (576 mm) is double that of Loxton (275 mm) and
evapotranspiration (ETP) is almost half. The climate of some of the
cultivated areas of Western Australia (Geraldton, York, etc.) is
warmer, with greater evaporation and somewhat less rain than that of
Tortosa (Tarragona). In both Spain and Australia the carob orchards
normally are therefore found in drylands, though some of them also
exist in irrigated areas. In regions with very low rainfall, the carob
subsists by using the water of the subsoil, thanks to its strong
tap-root system.
Soils of the cultivation zones (South-West
Australia) are, as a rule, low in fertility, most are of poor texture
and can be cultivated only with difficulty. The carob orchards are
found in better soils - clayey, brown or reddish - of neutral pH or
alkaline and usually low in phosphorus.
Some non-governmental
organisations show interest by encouraging the cultivation of the
carob, its industrial trade, and the consumption of the carob fruit for
human nourishment, as well as for that of stock.
Varieties
The
carob trees that exist in Australia are produced largely from seed.
Therefore, there exists a great heterogeneity. At the beginning of the
1980s, the ITCI imported 12 foreign varieties originating in Europe and
California to introduce them to different states of the country
(Esbenshade and Wilson, 1986). They originated from a varietal
collection, now disappeared, that was located in Vista (California).
Also,
at this time, some farmers began to select interesting local types for
the good size of the fruit and high content in flesh and sugar. This
means that there does not exist systematic studies on the behaviour of
carob varieties in the different cultivation zones. There is, however,
four recent cases concerning collections, mainly with foreign clonal
plant material, that produce fruit with high flesh content. Three of
them are found in the state of South Australia (Loxton, Burra and
Gawler).
The most important is located in the Loxton Research
Centre, where, in the ninth year, the cultivars 'Laguna', 'Santa Fe'
and 'Clifford' (USA), Tylliria' (Cyprus), 'Sfax' (Tunisia) and 'Amele'
(Italy) had all achieved good production levels. Some farmers of
Mediterranean ancestry have introduced, in the course of the years,
varieties of their respective original homes. Most of these have not
been tested.
The varieties cultivated in Australia are
characterised by having a high flesh content, the production being
destined for animal food. Spain, in contrast, currently recommends
varieties with a high content of seed. The gum is then extracted and is
used as a food additive (Tous, 1994 ), to satisfy the demand of the
European market for this product. Also they are using some male trees
to pollinate the female varieties in the commercial orchards. Emphasis
is placed on the following foreign and local varieties:
Local:
In the state of South Australia emphasis is on the female cultivar
'Bath', 'Irlam', 'Maitland' and 'Paxton'. In Western Australia there
are varieties produced called 'King's Park No.1', 'Princess', 'Marshall
No.1 and 5', 'Collins', and 'Banks No.2, 3 and 4'. The cultivar
'Princess' is given significance since it has a high sugar content in
its flesh (almost 60%). The clones of the series 'Banks', selected by
the author in the area of Perth, are characterised by producing fruit
with good yields of seeds.
Foreign: In new orchards they have
begun to graft the female varieties 'Tylliria', originating in Cyprus,
'Amele' of Italy, 'Casuda' of Spain, 'Sfax' of Tunisia, and the
hermaphrodites 'Santa Fe' and 'Clifford' of the USA.
In the last
few years in New Zealand, where there exist some 20 ha of carobs, the
farmers have emphasised the introduction of the Australian varieties
'KP-1' and 'Marshal No. 1'.
In summary it could be said that at
this time there are several varieties for new orchards. There do not
exist clear evaluation criteria in this regard, due to the fact that
the trials are very recent and incomplete. Not all of the potential
local plant material has been selected yet. Furthermore, there does not
exist much experience in cultivation. Agronomic and commercial criteria
(flesh and/or seed) are the most important in this regard, as well as
selection of the clonal material. The zones where the carob is
cultivated are characterised by their high temperatures in the summer
months, low annual rainfall, and mild and infrequent winter frosts.
Characteristic of typical orchards
The
carob orchards in Australia are recent, the oldest being dated at the
beginning the 1980s. Currently these have begun to produce the first
commercial crops. In this section will be described some characteristic
of interest of these same orchards.
Size of plantations.
Areas of the carob plantations tend to be small, between 1 and 5 ha,
though there also exist two large plantations, each one of them having
some 40 ha, located in the localities of Burra (South Australia) and
York (Western Australia).
Propagation.
The method mainly used in the orchards has been by direct seeding or by
planting seedlings with subsequent grafting of the variety selected in
the field at two to four years old. Currently some nurseries are
experimenting with the technique of top grafting and also propagation
by cuttings rooted under mist. This is quite recent in this country.
Perhaps because of the shortage of commercial nurseries, and large
distances, farmers set up their own nurseries to produce the necessary
free graft wood to cover their needs.
Planting densities.
The densities used vary between 100 - 200 trees / ha, with spacing of
10 x 10m, 9 x 9m, or 6 x 8m. On some developments the carob is also
used as a species for hedges, in association with other cultivation.
Techniques of cultivation.
The orchards, as a rule, receive little cultural care, due basically to
the fact that it is considered a new crop in this country. They do,
however, emphasise, among others the following:
The system of
'no tillage soil maintenance' is used, mainly to eliminate weeds and
reduce competition, by application of herbicides under the crown of the
tree, and leaving the natural green cover between the tree rows.
'Branch
pruning' is quite light or absent with respect to the interior of the
crown. The branches at the base of the trunk are pruned to leave the
height of the cross of the tree at about 1 metre to help with future
mechanical harvesting of the fruit with trunk vibrators.
Pests and diseases.
The carob in Australia does not have excessive plant disease problems.
One might emphasise, however, in young orchards, the damage done by
birds that destroy the soft shoots of the young trees. Animals
(rabbits, kangaroos, etc.) also gnaw the bark of the trunk and eat the
leaves, mainly in the drought years when there is little food.
Final considerations
The
cultivation of the carob tree in Australia is relatively new. In given
areas of some States of this country, mainly in Western Australia,
there is a considerable interest to encourage this cultivation. It is
anticipated that increases in planted areas in the next years will
occur for agroforestry uses and to satisfy the potential internal
demand of carob-bean flesh, largely for animal nourishment.
The
Australian consumer seems to know the beneficial characteristics for
human health of this typically Mediterranean dried fruit.
It is
accepted also, that in the last years there has been a growing trend in
imports of toasted carob-bean flour, as well as in locust bean gum, for
its use in the food industry. The Australian consumer seems to know the
beneficial characteristics for human health of the carob flesh, and the
natural thickener uses of the locust bean gum, of this typically
Mediterranean dried fruit.
Current cultivation technology is
little developed. The same is true for the study of the existing clonal
plant material. This situation could be improved with the beginning of
investigation activities and/or experiment (R & D) in this regard
on the part of the competent Australian organisations.
Acknowledgments
These
results are the fruit of a technical visit to Australia in the month of
April 1994 accomplished by the author. My thanks for the financial
support of the International Tree Crops Institute (ITCI), the
University of Adelaide, and the Deputy of Tarragona. Also I desire to
express my gratefulness to Dr. Henry Esbenshade (ITCI), Mr Farnell
Hobman (Loxton Research Centre) and Mr Graham Brookman (University of
Adelaide), for helping me gather information on the cultivation of the
carob in Australia.
Bibliography
Eliass
Castillo, F.; Ruis, L., 1977. Agroclimatologia de España. Cuadernos
INIA, 7 Ed. Ministerio de Agricultura. Madrid, p. 350.
Esbenshade, H., Wilson, G. 1986. Growing carobs in Australia. Ed. Goddard and Dobson, Victoria, 136 p.
Esbenshade,
H., 1994. Olives and Carobs for landcare and profit in southern
Australia. Olives and Carobs National Symposium, University of Adelaide
(South Australia), Roseworthy Campus: 5-17.
Hobman,
F.R., 1994. The potential for an Australian olive industry. Olives and
Carobs National Symposium, University of Adelaide (South Australia),
Roseworthy Campus: 29-42.
Tous, J., 1994. Carobs: A
worldwide perspective on the industry and management. Olives and Carobs
National Symposium, University of Adelaide (South Australia),
Roseworthy Campus: 46-52.
Translation
by A. Murphy from the Spanish article of Dr Joan Tous Marti, "Situacion
del algoarrobo en Australia" (Boletin Agropecuario de la Caixa, vol.
35, Jan-Mar 1995). Dr Tous is attached to an Arboricultural Research
Centre in Tarragona, Spain.
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