From the book
Fruits of Warm Climates
by Julia F. Morton
Mango
Mangifera
indica L.
ANACARDIACEAE
It is a matter of astonishment to many that the luscious mango, Mangifera indica
L., one of the most celebrated of tropical fruits, is a member of the
family Anacardiaceae–notorious for embracing a number of highly
poisonous plants. The extent to which the mango tree shares some of the
characteristics of its relatives will be explained further on. The
universality of its renown is attested by the wide usage of the name,
mango in English and Spanish and, with only slight variations in French
(mangot, mangue, manguier), Portuguese (manga, mangueira), and Dutch
(manja). In some parts, of Africa, it is called mangou, or mangoro.
There are dissimilar terms only in certain tribal dialects.
Plate XXVII: MANGO, Mangifera
indica–'Cambodiana'
Description
The
mango tree is erect, 30 to 100 ft (roughly 10-30 m) high, with a broad,
rounded canopy which may, with age, attain 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) in
width, or a more upright, oval, relatively slender crown. In deep soil,
the taproot descends to a depth of 20 ft (6 in), the profuse,
wide-spreading, feeder root system also sends down many anchor roots
which penetrate for several feet. The tree is long-lived, some
specimens being known to be 300 years old and still fruiting.
Plate XXVIII: MANGO, Mangifera
indica–'Kent', 'Tommy Atkins', and 'Irwin'
Nearly
evergreen, alternate leaves are borne mainly in rosettes at the tips of
the branches and numerous twigs from which they droop like ribbons on
slender petioles 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long. The new leaves, appearing
periodically and irregularly on a few branches at a time, are
yellowish, pink, deep-rose or wine-red, becoming dark-green and glossy
above, lighter beneath. The midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many
horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves may be 4 to 12.5 in (10-32
cm) long and 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.4 cm) wide. Hundreds and even as many
as 3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25% to 98% male,
the rest hermaphroditic, are borne in profuse, showy, erect, pyramidal,
branched clusters 2 1/2 to 15 1/2 in (6-40 cm) high. There is great
variation in the form, size, color and quality of the fruits. They may
be nearly round, oval, ovoid-oblong, or somewhat kidney-shaped, often
with a break at the apex, and are usually more or less lop-sided. They
range from 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) in length and from a few ounces
to 4 to 5 lbs (1.8-2.26 kg). The skin is leathery, waxy, smooth, fairly
thick, aromatic and ranges from light-or dark-green to clear yellow,
yellow-orange, yellow and reddish-pink, or more or less blushed with
bright-or dark-red or purple-red, with fine yellow, greenish or reddish
dots, and thin or thick whitish, gray or purplish bloom, when fully
ripe. Some have a "turpentine" odor and flavor, while others are richly
and pleasantly fragrant. The flesh ranges from pale-yellow to
deep-orange. It is essentially peach-like but much more fibrous (in
some seedlings excessively so-actually "stringy"); is extremely juicy,
with a flavor range from very sweet to subacid to tart.
There is
a single, longitudinally ribbed, pale yellowish-white, somewhat woody
stone, flattened, oval or kidney-shaped, sometimes rather elongated. It
may have along one side a beard of short or long fibers clinging to the
flesh cavity, or it may be nearly fiberless and free. Within the stone
is the starchy seed, monoembryonic (usually single-sprouting) or
polyembryonic (usually producing more than one seedling).
Origin and
Distribution
Native
to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman
Islands, the mango has been cultivated, praised and even revered in its
homeland since Ancient times. Buddhist monks are believed to have taken
the mango on voyages to Malaya and eastern Asia in the 4th and 5th
Centuries B.C. The Persians are said to have carried it to East Africa
about the 10th Century A.D. It was commonly grown in the East Indies
before the earliest visits of the Portuguese who apparently introduced
it to West Africa early in the 16th Century and also into Brazil. After
becoming established in Brazil, the mango was carried to the West
Indies, being first planted in Barbados about 1742 and later in the
Dominican Republic. It reached Jamaica about 1782 and, early in the
19th Century, reached Mexico from the Philippines and the West Indies.
In
1833, Dr. Henry Perrine shipped seedling mango plants from Yucatan to
Cape Sable at the southern tip of mainland Florida but these died after
he was killed by Indians. Seeds were imported into Miami from the West
Indies by a Dr. Fletcher in 1862 or 1863. From these, two trees grew to
large size and one was still fruiting in 1910 and is believed to have
been the parent of the 'No. 11' which was commonly planted for many
years thereafter.
Fig. 59: Some mangoes (Mangifera
indica) more or less commonly grown in dooryards of
southern Florida in the mid-1940's.
In 1868 or 1869, seeds were planted south of Coconut
Grove and the resultant trees prospered at least until 1909, producing
the so-called 'Peach' or 'Turpentine' mango which became fairly common.
In 1872, a seedling of 'No. 11' from Cuba was planted in Bradenton. In
1877 and 1879, W.P. Neeld made successful plantings on the west coast
but these and most others north of Ft. Myers were killed in the January
freeze of 1886.
In 1885, seeds of the excellent 'Bombay' mango
of India were brought from Key West to Miami and resulted in two trees
which flourished until 1909. Plants of grafted varieties were brought
in from India by a west coast resident, Rev. D.G. Watt, in 1885 but
only two survived the trip and they were soon frozen in a cold spell.
Another unsuccessful importation of inarched trees from Calcutta was
made in 1888. Of six grafted trees that arrived from Bombay in 1889,
through the efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture,
only one lived to fruit nine years later. The tree shipped is believed
to have been a 'Mulgoa' (erroneously labeled 'Mulgoba', a name unknown
in India except as originating in Florida). However, the fruit produced
did not correspond to 'Mulgoa' descriptions. It was beautiful,
crimson-blushed, just under 1 lb (454 g) with golden-yellow flesh. No
Indian visitor has recognized it as matching any Indian variety. Some
suggest that it was the fruit of the rootstock if the scion had been
frozen in the freeze of 1894-95. At any rate, it continued to be known
as 'Mulgoba', and it fostered many off-spring along the southeastern
coast of the State and in Cuba and Puerto Rico, though it proved to be
very susceptible to the disease, anthracnose, in this climate. Seeds
from this tree were obtained and planted by a Captain Haden in Miami.
The trees fruited some years after his death and his widow gave the
name 'Haden' to the tree that bore the best fruit. This variety was
regarded as the standard of excellence locally for many decades
thereafter and was popular for shipping because of its tough skin.
George
B. Cellon started extensive vegetative propagation (patch-budding) of
the 'Haden' in 1900 and shipped the fruits to northern markets. P.J.
Wester conducted many experiments in budding, grafting and inarching
from 1904 to 1908 with less success. Shield-budding on a commercial
scale was achieved by Mr. Orange Pound of Coconut Grove in 1909 and
this was a pioneer breakthrough which gave strong impetus to mango
growing, breeding, and dissemination.
Enthusiastic
introduction of other varieties by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's
Bureau of Plant Industry, by nurserymen, and other individuals
followed, and the mango grew steadily in popularity and importance. The
Reasoner Brothers Nursery, on the west coast, imported many mango
varieties and was largely responsible for the ultimate establishment of
the mango in that area, together with a Mr. J.W. Barney of Palma Sola
who had a large collection of varieties and had worked out a feasible
technique of propagation which he called "slot grafting".
Dr.
Wilson Popenoe, one of the early Plant Explorers of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture, became Director of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana,
Tegucigalpa, Honduras. For more than a quarter of a century, he was a
leader in the introduction and propagation of outstanding mangos from
India and the East Indies, had them planted at the school and at the
Lancetilla Experiment Station at Tela, Honduras, and distributed around
tropical America.
In time, the mango became one of the most
familiar domesticated trees in dooryards or in small or large
commercial plantings throughout the humid and semi-arid lowlands of the
tropical world and in certain areas of the near-tropics such as the
Mediterranean area (Madeira and the Canary Islands), Egypt, southern
Africa, and southern Florida. Local markets throughout its range are
heaped high with the fragrant fruits in season and large quantities are
exported to non-producing countries.
Altogether, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture made 528 introductions from India, the
Philippines, the West Indies and other sources from 1899 to 1937.
Selection, naming and propagation of new varieties by government
agencies and individual growers has been going on ever since. The Mango
Form was created in 1938 through the joint efforts of the Broward
County Home Demonstration Office of the University of Florida's
Cooperative Extension Service and the Fort Lauderdale Garden Club, with
encouragement and direction from the University of Florida's
Subtropical Experiment Station (now the Agricultural Research and
Education Center) in Homestead, and Mrs. William J. Krome, a pioneer
tropical fruit grower. Meetings were held annually, whenever possible,
for the exhibiting and judging of promising seedlings, and exchanging
and publication of descriptions and cultural information.
Meanwhile,
a reverse flow of varieties was going on. Improved mangos developed in
Florida have been of great value in upgrading the mango industry in
tropical America and elsewhere.
With such intense interest in
this crop, mango acreage advanced in Florida despite occasional
setbacks from cold spells and hurricanes. But with the expanding
population, increased land values and cost and shortage of agricultural
labor after World War II, a number of large groves were subdivided into
real estate developments given names such as "Mango Heights" and "Mango
Terrace". There were estimated to be 7,000 acres (2,917 ha) in 27
Florida counties in 1954, over half in commercial groves. There were
4,000 acres (1,619 ha) in 1961. Today, mango production in Florida, on
approximately 1,700 acres (688 ha), is about 8,818 tons (8,000 MT)
annually in "good" years, and valued at $3 million. Fruits are shipped
not only to northern markets but also to the United Kingdom,
Netherlands, France and Saudi Arabia. In advance of the local season,
quantities are imported into the USA from Haiti and the Dominican
Republic, and, throughout the summer, Mexican sources supply mangos to
the Pacific Coast consumer. Supplies also come in from India and Taiwan.
A
mango seed from Guatemala was planted in California about 1880 and a
few trees have borne fruit in the warmest locations of that state, with
careful protection when extremely low temperatures occur.
Mangos
have been grown in Puerto Rico since about 1750 but mostly of
indifferent quality. A program of mango improvement began in 1948 with
the introduction and testing of over 150 superior cultivars by the
University of Puerto Rico. The south coast of the island, having a dry
atmosphere, is best suited for mango culture and substantial quantities
of mangos are produced there without the need to spray for anthracnose
control. The fruits are plentiful on local markets and shipments are
made to New York City where there are many Puerto Rican residents. A
study of 16 cultivars was undertaken in 1960 to determine those best
suited to more intense commercial production. Productivity evaluations
started in 1965 and continued to 1972.
The earliest
record of the mango in Hawaii is the introduction of several small
plants from Manila in 1824. Three plants were brought from Chile in
1825. In 1899, grafted trees of a number of Indian varieties, including
'Pairi', were imported. Seedlings became widely distributed over the
six major islands. In 1930, the 'Haden' was introduced from Florida and
became established in commercial plantations. The local industry began
to develop seriously after the importation of a series of monoembryonic
cultivars from Florida. But Hawaiian mangos are prohibited from entry
into mainland USA, Australia, Japan and some other countries, because
of the prevalence of the mango seed weevil in the islands.
In
Brazil, most mangos are produced in the state of Minas, Gerais where
the crop amounts to 243,018 tons (22,000 MT) annually on 24,710 acres
(10,000 ha). These are mainly seedlings, as are those of the other
states with major mango crops–Ceará, Paraibá,
Goias, Pernambuco, and Maranhao. Sao Paulo raises about 63,382 tons
(57,500 MT) per year on 9,884 acres (4,000 ha). The bulk of the crop is
for domestic consumption. In 1973, Brazil exported 47.4 tons (43 MT) of
mangos to Europe.
Mango growing began with the earliest settlers
in North Queensland, Australia, with seeds brought casually from India,
Ceylon, the East Indies and the Philippines. In 1875, 40 varieties from
India were set out in a single plantation. Over the years, selections
have been made for commercial production and culture has extended to
subtropical Western Australia.
There is no record of the
introduction of the mango into South Africa but a plantation was set
out in Durban about 1860. Production today probably has reached about
16,535 tons (15,000 MT) annually, and South Africa exports fresh mangos
by air to Europe.
Kenya exports mature mangos to France and Germany
and both mature and immature to the United Kingdom, the latter for
chutney-making. Egypt produces 110,230 tons (100,000 MT) of mangos
annually and exports moderate amounts to 20 countries in the Near East
and Europe. Mango culture in the Sudan occupies about 24,710 acres
(10,000 ha) producing a total of 66,138 tons (60,000 MT) per year.
India,
with 2,471,000 acres (1,000,000 ha) of mangos (70% of its fruit-growing
area) produces 65% of the world's mango crop–9,920,700 tons
(9,000,000 MT). In 1985, mango growers around Hyderabad sought
government protection against terrorists who cut down mango orchards
unless the owners paid ransom (50,000 rupees in one case). India far
outranks all other countries as an exporter of processed mangos,
shipping 2/3 of the total 22,046 tons (20,000 MT). Mango preserves go
to the same countries receiving the fresh fruit and also to Hong Kong,
Iraq, Canada and the United States. Following India in volume of
exports are Thailand, 774,365 tons (702,500 MT), Pakistan and
Bangladesh, followed by Brazil. Mexico ranks 5th with about 100,800
acres (42,000 ha) and an annual yield of approximately 640,000 tons
(580,000 MT). The Philippines have risen to 6th place. Tanzania is 7th,
the Dominican Republic, 8th and Colombia, 9th.
Leading exporters
of fresh mangos are: the Philippines, shipping to Hong Kong, Singapore
and Japan; Thailand, shipping to Singapore and Malaysia; Mexico,
shipping mostly 'Haden' to the United States, 2,204 tons (2,000 MT),
annually, also to Japan and Paris; India, shipping mainly 'Alphonso'
and 'Bombay' to Europe, Malaya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Indonesia,
shipping to Hong Kong and Singapore; and South Africa shipping (60%
'Haden' and 'Kent') by air to Europe and London in mid-winter.
Chief
importers are England and France, absorbing 82% of all mango shipments.
Mango consumers in England are mostly residents of Indian origin, or
English people who formerly lived in India.
The first
International Symposium on Mango and Mango Culture, of the
International Society for Horticultural Science, was held in New Delhi,
India, in 1969 with a view to assembling a collection of germplasm from
around the world and encouraging cooperative research on rootstocks and
bearing behavior, hybridization, disease, storage and transport
problems, and other areas of study.
Varieties
The
original wild mangos were small fruits with scant, fibrous flesh, and
it is believed that natural hybridization has taken place between M.
indica and M. sylvatica Roxb. in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher
quality has been carried on for 4,000 to 6,000 years and vegetative
propagation for 400 years.
Over 500 named varieties (some say
1,000) have evolved and have been described in India. Perhaps some are
duplicates by different names, but at least 350 are propagated in
commercial nurseries. In 1949, K.C. Naik described 82 varieties grown
in South India. L.B. and R.N. Singh presented and illustrated 150 in
their monograph on the mangos of Uttar Pradesh (1956). In 1958, 24 were
described as among the important commercial types in India as a whole,
though in the various climatic zones other cultivars may be prominent
locally. Of the 24, the majority are classed as early or mid-season:
Early:
'Bombay Yellow'
('Bombai')–high quality
'Malda'
('Bombay Green')
'01our'
(polyembryonic)–a heavy bearer.
'Pairi'
('Paheri', 'Pirie', 'Peter', 'Nadusalai', 'grape', 'Raspuri', 'Goha
bunder')
'Safdar Pasand'
'Suvarnarekha'
('Sundri')
Early to Mid-Season:
'Langra'
'Rajapuri'
Mid-Season:
'Alampur Baneshan'–high
quality but shy bearer
'Alphonso'
('Badami', 'gundu', 'appas', 'khader')–high quality
'Bangalora'('Totapuri',
'collection', 'kili-mukku', abu Samada' in the Sudan)–of highest
quality, best keeping, regular bearer, but most susceptible to seed
weevil.
'Banganapally'
('Baneshan', 'chaptai', 'Safeda')–of high quality but shy bearer
'Dusehri'
('Dashehari aman', 'nirali aman', 'kamyab')–high quality
'Gulab Khas'
'Zardalu'
'K.O. 11'
Mid- to Late-Season:
'Rumani'
(often bearing an off-season crop)
'Samarbehist'
('Chowsa', 'Chausa', 'Khajri')–high quality
'Vanraj'
'K.O. 7/5'
('Himayuddin' ´ 'Neelum')
Late:
'Fazli'
('Fazli malda')–high quality
'Safeda Lucknow'
Often Late:
'Mulgoa'–high
quality but a shy bearer
'Neelum'
(sometimes twice a year)–somewhat dwarf, of indifferent quality, and
anthracnose-susceptible.
Most
of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000
crosses were made over a period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids
were raised and screened. Of these, 'Mallika',
a cross of 'Neelum'
(female parent) with 'Dashehari'
(male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972. The hybrid tends
toward regular bearing, the fruits are showier and are thicker of flesh
than either parent, the flavor is superior and keeping quality better.
The season is nearly a month later than 'Dashehari'. Another
new hybrid, 'Amrapali',
of which 'Dashehari' was the female parent and 'Neelum'
the male, is definitely dwarf, precocious, a regular and heavy bearer,
and late in the season. The fruit is only medium in size; flesh is rich
orange, fiberless, sweet and 2 to 3 times as high in carotene as either
parent.
The Central Food Technological Research Institute
Experiment Station in Hyderabad has evaluated 9 "table varieties"
(firm-fleshed), 4 "juicy" varieties, and 5 hybrids as to suitability
for processing. 'Baneshan',
'Suvarnarekha'
and '5/5 Rajapuri'
'Langra'
were deemed suitable for slicing and canning. 'Baneshan', 'Navaneetam', 'Goabunder', 'Royal Special', 'Hydersaheb' and '9/4 Neelum Baneshan',
for canned juice; and 'Baneshan',
'Navaneetam',
'Goabunder',
'K.O. 7'and 'Sharbatgadi' for
canned nectar.
It is interesting to note that all but four
of the leading Indian cultivars are yellow-skinned. The exceptions are:
two yellow with a red blush on shoulders, one red-yellow with a blush
of red, and one green. In Thailand, there is a popular mango called
'Tong dum' ('Black Gold') marketed when the skin is very dark-green and
usually displayed with the skin at the stem end cut into points and
spread outward to show the golden flesh in the manner that red radishes
are fashioned into "radish roses" in American culinary art.
European
consumers prefer a deep-yellow mango that develops a reddish-pink
tinge. In Florida, the color of the mango is an important factor and
everyone admires a handsome mango more or less generously overlaid with
red. Red skin is considered a necessity in mangos shipped to northern
markets, even though the quality may be inferior to that of non-showy
cultivars. Also, dependable bearing and shippability are rated above
internal qualities for practical reasons. And a shipping mango must be
one that can be picked 2 weeks before full maturity without appreciable
loss of flavor. Too, there must be several varieties to extend the
season over at least 3 months.
Florida
mangos are classed in 4 groups:
1–Indian
varieties, mainly monoembryonic, introduced in the past and maintained
mostly in collections; typically of somewhat "turpentine" character.
2–Philippine
and Indo-Chinese types, largely polyembryonic, non-turpentiney,
fiberless, fairly anthracnose-resistant. Scattered in dooryard
plantings.
3–West Indian/South American mangos, especially
'Turpentine' and 'No.11' and the superior 'Julie' from Trinidad,
'Madame Francis' from Haiti, 'Itamaraca' from Brazil. These are
non-commercial.
4–Florida-originated selections or cultivars, of which many have risen
and declined over the decades.
In
general, mangos from the Philippines ('Carabao') and Thailand
('Saigon', 'Cambodiana') behave better in Florida's humidity than the
Indian varieties.
The much-prized 'Haden' was being recognized
in the late 1930's and early 1940's as anthracnose-prone, a light and
irregular bearer, and was being replaced by more disease-resistant and
prolific cultivars. The present-day leaders for commercial production
and shipping are 'Tommy Atkins', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Van Dyke' and
Jubilee'. The first 2 represent 50% of the commercial crop.
'Tommy Atkins'
(from a seed planted early in the 1920's at Fort Lauderdale, Florida;
commercially adopted in the late 1950's); oblong-oval; medium to large;
skin thick, orange-yellow, largely overlaid with bright- to dark-red
and heavy purplish bloom, and dotted with many large, yellow-green
lenticels. Flesh medium- to dark-yellow, firm, juicy, with medium
fiber, of fair to good quality; flavor poor if over-fertilized and
irrigated. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July, or late June
through July, depending on spring weather; can be picked early,
developing good color and usually has long shelf-life. Sometimes there
is an open space in the flesh at the stem-end. Interior softening near
the seed occurs in some years. Anthracnose-resistant.
'Keitt'–rounded-oval
to ovate; large; skin medium-thick, yellow with light-red blush and a
lavender bloom; the many lenticels small, yellow to red. Flesh
orange-yellow, firm, fiberless except near the seed; of rich, sweet
flavor; very good quality. Seed small, or medium to large. Season:
early July through August or August and September, depending on spring
weather. Tree small to medium, erect, open, rather scraggly but very
productive. For market acceptance, requires post-harvest ethylene
treatment to enhance color.
'Kent'–ovate,
thick; large; skin greenish-yellow with dark-red blush and gray bloom;
many small, yellow lenticels. Flesh fiberless, juicy, sweet; very good
to excellent. Seed small. Season: July and August and often into
September, but if left on too long the seed tends to sprout in the
fruit–a condition called ovipary. Subject to black spot. Tree is
of erect, slender habit, of moderate size, precocious; bears very well
and fruit ships well, but, for the market, needs ethylene treatment to
enrich color.
'Van Dyke'
and 'Jubilee'
are relatively new cultivars maturing from late June through July. 'Van
Dyke' is of superior color and excellent quality but subject to
anthracnose and may not hold its place for long.
Two cultivars that have stood the test of time and have been shipped
north on a lesser scale are:
'Sensation'
(originated in North Miami; tree moved to Carmichael grove near Perrine
and propagated and grown commercially since 1949). Oval, oblique, and
faintly beaked; medium to medium-small; skin thin, adherent; basically
yellow to yellow-orange overlaid with dark plum-red, and with tiny,
pale-yellow lenticels. Flesh pale-yellow, firm, with very little fiber,
faintly aromatic, of mild, slightly sweet flavor; of good quality.
Monoembryonic. Tree bears heavily in August.
'Palmer'–oblong-ovate,
plump; large; skin medium-thick, orange-yellow with red blush and pale
bloom and many large lenticels. Flesh dull-yellow, firm, with very
little or no fiber; of fair to good quality. Seed long, of medium size.
Season: July and August, sometimes into September. Tree is medium to
large; precocious; usually bears well.
Fig. 60: The tiny, colorful 'Azucar' mango of Santa Marta and
Baranquilla, Colombia, is sweet and freestone.
The leading cultivar for local market at present is:
'Irwin'
(a seedling of 'Lippens', planted by F.D. Irwin of Miami in 1939; bore
its first fruits in 1945); oblong-ovate, one shoulder oblique; of
medium size; skin orange to pink with extensive dark-red blush and
small, white lenticels. Seed of medium size. Flesh yellow, almost
fiberless, with mild, sweet flavor; good to very good quality. Seed
small. Season: mid-May to early July; or June through July. Tree
somewhat dwarf; bears heavy crops of fruits in clusters. Fruit no
longer shipped because if picked before full maturity ripens with a
mottled appearance which is not acceptable on the market.
Non-colorful or not high-yielding cultivars of excellent quality
recommended for Florida homeowners include:
'Carrie'
(somewhat dwarf); 'Edward'
('Haden' seedling); 'Florigon';
'Jacquelin';
'Cambodiana';
'Cecil'; 'Saigon'.
Among cultivars formerly commercial but largely top-worked to others
favored for various reasons: 'Davis-Haden'
(a 'Haden' seedling); 'Fascell';
'Lippens' (a
'Haden' seedling); 'Smith'
(a 'Haden' seedling); 'Spring-fels';
'Dixon'; 'Sunset'; 'Zill' (a 'Haden'
seedling).
Many
cultivars that have lost popularity in Florida have become of
importance elsewhere. 'Sandersha', for example, has proved remarkably
resistant to most mango fruit diseases in South Africa.
The histories and descriptions of 46 cultivars growing in Brazil were
published in 1955. These included 'Brooks',
'Cacipura', 'Cambodiana', 'Goa-Alphonso', 'Haden', 'Mulgoba', 'Pairi', 'Pico', 'Sandersha', 'Singapore', 'White Langra', all
brought in from Florida. The rest are mostly local seedlings. 'Haden'
was introduced from Florida in 1931 and has been widely cultivated. It
is still included among the cultivars of major importance, the others
being 'Extrema',
'Non-Plus-Ultra'.
'Carlota';
but in 1977 the leading cultivar in Brazil was reported to be 'Bourbon', also known
as 'Espada'.
It is found especially in northeastern Brazil but is recommended for
all other mango areas. A collection of 53 cultivars is maintained at
Piricicaba and another of 82 at Bahia.
Of Mexican mangos, 65%
are Florida selections; 35% are of the type commonly grown in the
Philippines. Over a period of 3 years detailed studies have been made
of the commercial cultivars in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, with a view
to determining the most profitable for export. Results indicated that
propagation of 'Purple
Irwin', 'Red
Irwin', 'Sensation'
and 'Zill'
should be discontinued, and that 'Haden',
'Kent' and 'Keitt'
will continue to be planted, the first two because, of their color and
quality, and the third in spite of its deficiency in color.
'Manila', a
Philippine mango, early-ripening, is much grown in Veracruz. 'Manzanillo-Nunez',
a chance seedling first noticed in 1972, is gaining in popularity
because of its regular bearing, skin color (75% red), nearly fiberless
flesh, good quality, high yield and resistance to anthracnose.
'Julie'
is the main mango exported from the West Indies to Europe. The fruit is
somewhat flattened on one side, of medium size; the flesh is not
completely fiberless but is of good flavor. It came to Florida from
Trinidad but has long been popular in Jamaica. The tree is somewhat
dwarf, has 30% to 50% hermaphrodite flowers; bears well and regularly.
It is adaptable to humid environments and disease-resistant and the
fruit is resistant to the fruit fly. 'Julie' has been
grown in Ghana since the early 1920's. From 'Julie', the
well-known mango breeder, Lawrence Zill, developed 'Carrie', but
'Julie' has not been planted in Florida for many years.
Grafted
plants of the 'Bombay Green', so popular in Jamaica, were brought there
from India in 1869 by the then governor, Sir John Peter Grant, but were
planted in Castleton gardens where the trees flourished but failed to
fruit in the humid atmosphere. Years later, a Director of Agriculture
had budwood from these trees transferred to rootstocks at Hope Gardens.
The results were so successful that the 'Bombay Green' became
commonly planted on the island. The author brought six grafted trees
from Jamaica to Miami in 1951 and, after they were released from
quarantine, distributed them to the Subtropical Experiment Station in
Homestead, the Newcomb Nursery, and a private grower, but all succumbed
to the cold in succeeding winters. The fruit is completely fiberless
and freestone so that it is frequently served cut in half and eaten
with a spoon. The seed is pierced with a mango fork and served also so
that the luscious flesh that adheres to it may be enjoyed as well.
One
of the best-known mangos peculiar to the West Indies is 'Madame
Francis' which is produced abundantly in Haiti. It is a large,
flattened, kidney-shaped mango, light-green, slightly yellowish when
ripe, with orange, low-fiber, richly flavored flesh. This mango has
been regularly exported to Florida in late spring after fumigation
against the fruit fly.
Ghana received more than a
dozen cultivars back in the early 1920's. In 1973, it was found that
only three of these–'Julie', 'Jaffna' and 'Rupee'–could be
recognized with certainty. More than a dozen other cultivars were
brought in much later from Florida and India. An effort was begun in
1967 to classify the seedlings (from 10 to 50 years of age) in the
Ejura district, the Ejura Agricultural Station, and the plantation of
the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, in order to eliminate confusion and have identifiable cultivars
marked for future research. After checking with available published
material on other cultivars for possible resemblances, descriptions and
photographs of 21 newly named cultivars were published in 1973. Of
these, 12 are fibrous and 9 fiberless. (See Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey and
Arbutiste in the Bibliography). One of the fibrous cultivars, named
'Tee-Vee-Dee', is so well flavored and aromatic that it is locally
extremely popular.
Until the mid-1960's mangos were grown only
in dooryards in Surinam and the few varieties were largely
polyembryonic types from Indonesia, and these have given rise to many
chance seedlings. In order to discover the best for commercial
planting, mango exhibits were sponsored and budwood of the best
selections has been grafted onto various rootstocks at the Paramaribo
Agricultural Experiment Station. The two most important local mangos
are:
'Golek'
(from Java;
also grown in Queensland) long-oblong; skin dull-green or
yellowish-green even when ripe, leathery; flesh pale yellow, thick,
fiberless, sweet, rich, of excellent quality. Keeps well in cold
storage for 3 weeks. Season: early (December in Queensland). Tree bears
moderately to heavily. This cultivar is considered the most promising
for large-scale culture and export. In Queensland it tends to crack
longitudinally as it matures.
'Roodborstje'–medium
to large; skin deep-red; flesh sweet, juicy, with very little fiber.
Not a good keeper. Season: early to midseason. Tree is a heavy bearer.
In
Venezuela, eleven cultivars were evaluated by food technologists for
processing suitability–'Blackman', 'Glenn', 'Irwin', 'Kent',
'Lippens', 'Martinica', 'Sensation', 'Smith', 'Selection 80',
'Selection 85', and 'Zill'. The most appropriate, because of
physicochemical characteristics and productivity were determined to be:
'Glenn', 'Irwin', 'Kent' and 'Zill'.
In Hawaii, 'Haden'
has represented 90% of all commercial production. 'Pairi' is more
prized for home use but is a shy bearer, a poor keeper, not as colorful
as 'Haden', so it never attained commercial status. In a search for
earlier and later varieties of commercial potential, over 125 varieties
were collected and tested between 1934 and 1969. In 1956, one of the
winning entries in a mango contest attracted much attention. After
propagation and due observation it was named 'Gouveia' in 1969 and
described as: ovate-oblong, of medium size, with medium-thick,
ochre-yellow skin blushed with blood-red over 2/3 of the surface. Flesh
is orange, nearly fiberless, sweet, juicy. Seed is small, slender,
monoembryonic. Season: late. Tree is of medium size, a consistent but
not heavy bearer. In quality tests 'Gouveia' received top scoring over
'Haden', 'Pairi', and several other cultivars. Florida mangos rated as
promising for Hawaii were 'Pope', 'Kent', 'Keitt' and 'Brooks' (later
than 'Haden') and 'Earlygold' and 'Zill' (earlier than 'Haden').
In Queensland, 'Kensington
Pride'
is the leading commercial cultivar in the drier areas. In humid regions
it is anthracnose-prone and requires spraying. It is thought to have
been introduced by traders in Bowen who were shipping horses for
military use in India. It may be called 'Kensington', 'Bowen', or,
because of its color, 'Apple' or 'Strawberry'. The fruit is distinctly
beaked when immature, with a groove extending from the stem to the
beak. It is medium-large; the skin is bright orange-yellow with
red-pink blush overlying areas exposed to the sun. Flesh is orange,
thick, nearly fiberless, juicy, of rich flavor. This cultivar is
classified as mid-season. The fruit matures from early to mid-November
at latitude 13°S; 6 weeks later at Bowen (20°S) and 1 week
later for each degree of latitude from Bowen to Brisbane. But at
17°S and an altitude of 1,148 ft (350 m) peak maturity is in mid-
to late-January. Polyembryonic. The fruit ships well but the tree is
not a dependable nor heavy bearer. It has an oval crown and unusually
sweet-scented leaves.
In 1981, after evaluating 43 accessions
seeking to lengthen the mango season in Queensland, 9 that mature
between 2 weeks earlier and 4 weeks later than 'Kensington Pride' were
chosen for commercial testing. Only one, 'Banana-1', was a Queensland
selection. The other 8 were introductions from Florida–'Smith',
'Palmer', 'Haden', 'Zill', 'Carrie', 'Irwin', 'Kent', 'Keitt'. 'Kent'
and 'Haden' have proved to be highly susceptible to blackspot in
Queensland; 'Keitt', 'Smith', and 'Zill' less so; and 'Palmer' and
'Kensington Pride' resistant.
In the Philippines, the 'Carabao'
constitutes 66% of the crop and 'Pico'
26%. These cultivars, apparently of Southeast Asian origin have
remained the most commonly grown and exported for many years.
In
Israel, 'Haden' has been popular for a long time though it is sensitive
to low temperatures in spring. An Egyptian introduction, 'Mabroka' is later in
season and escapes the early frosts. 'Maya', a local
seedling of 'Haden' has done well. Perhaps the most promising today is 'Nimrod',
a seedling of 'Maya', open pollinated, perhaps by 'Haden', planted in
1943, observed for 20 years and budded progeny for another 9 years;
named and released in 1970. The fruit is round-ovate, large; skin is
fairly thin, olive-green to yellow-green, blushed with red; attractive.
Flesh is deep-yellow, nearly fiberless, of fair flavor. Seed is large,
monoembryonic. Matures in mid-season (all August to mid-September in
Israel). Tree is large, upright, very cold-resistant. Average yield is
480 lbs (218 kg) per tree over 10 years.
It is impressive to see
how the early favorite, 'Haden', has influenced mango culture in many
parts of the world. Today, the Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research and
Education Center of the University of Florida, together maintain 125
mango cultivars as a resource for mango growers and breeders in many
countries.
Blooming and
Pollination
Mango
trees less than 10 years old may flower and fruit regularly every year.
Thereafter, most mangos tend toward alternate, or biennial, bearing. A
great deal of research has been done on this problem which may involve
the entire tree or only a portion of the branches. Branches that fruit
one year may rest the next, while branches on the other side of the
tree will bear.
Blooming is strongly affected by weather,
dryness stimulating flowering and rainy weather discouraging it. In
most of India, flowering occurs in December and January; in northern
India, in January and February or as late as March. There are some
varieties called "Baramasi" that flower and fruit irregularly
throughout the year. The cultivar 'Sam Ru Du' of Thailand bears 3 crops
a year–in January, June and October. In the drier islands of the
Lesser Antilles, there are mango trees that flower and fruit more or
less continuously all year around but never heavily at any time. Some
of these are cultivars introduced from Florida where they flower and
fruit only once a year. In southern Florida, mango trees begin to bloom
in late November and continue until February or March, inasmuch as
there are early, medium, and late varieties. During exceptionally warm
winters, mango trees have been known to bloom 3 times in succession,
each time setting and maturing fruit.
In the Philippines,
various methods are employed to promote flowering: smudging (smoking),
exposing the roots, pruning, girdling, withholding nitrogen and
irrigation, and even applying salt. In the West Indies, there is a
common folk practice of slashing the trunk with a machete to make the
tree bloom and bear in "off" years. Deblossoming (removing half the
flower clusters) in an "on" year will induce at least a small crop in
the next "off" year. Almost any treatment or condition that retards
vegetative growth will have this effect. Spraying with growth-retardant
chemicals has been tried, with inconsistent results. Potassium nitrate
has been effective in the Philippines.
In India, the
cultivar 'Dasheri', which is self incompatible, tends to begin blooming
very early (December and January) when no other cultivars are in
flower. And the early particles show a low percentage of hermaphrodite
flowers and a high incidence of floral malformation. Furthermore, early
blooms are often damaged by frost. It has been found that a single
mechanical deblossoming in the first bud-burst stage, induces
subsequent development of particles with less malformation, more
hermaphrodite flowers, and, as a result, a much higher yield of fruits.
There
is one cultivar, 'Neelum', in South India that bears heavily every
year, apparently because of its high rate (16%) of hermaphrodite
flowers. (The average for 'Alphonso' is 10%.) However, Indian
horticulturists report great tree-to-tree variation in seedlings of
this cultivar; in some surveys as much as 84% of the trees were rated
as poor bearers. Over 92% of 'Bangalora' seedlings have been found
bearing light crops.
Mango flowers are visited by fruit bats,
flies, wasps, wild bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, ants and various
bugs seeking the nectar and some transfer the pollen but a certain
amount of self-pollination also occurs. Honeybees do not especially
favor mango flowers and it has been found that effective pollination by
honeybees would require 3 to 6 colonies per acre (6-12 per ha). Many of
the unpollinated flowers are shed or fail to set fruit, or the fruit is
set but is shed when very young. Heavy rains wash off pollen and thus
prevent fruit setting. Some cultivars tend to produce a high percentage
of small fruits without a fully developed seed because of unfavorable
weather during the fruit-setting period.
Shy-bearing cultivars
of otherwise desirable characteristics are hybridized with heavy
bearers in order to obtain better crops. For example: shy-bearing
'Himayuddin', heavy-bearing 'Neelum'. Breeders usually hand-pollinate
all the flowers that are open in a cluster, remove the rest, and cover
the inflorescence with a plastic bag. But researchers in India have
found that there is very little chance of contamination and that
omitting the covering gives as much as 3.85% fruit set in place of
0.23% to 1.57% when bagged. Thus large populations of hybrids may be
raised for study. One of the latest techniques involves grafting the
male and female parents onto a chosen tree, then covering the panicles
with a polyethylene bag, and introducing house flies as pollinators.
Indian
scientists have found that pollen for crossbreeding can be stored at
32º F (0º C) for 10 hours. If not separated from the flowers,
it remains viable for 50 hours in a humid atmosphere at 65º to
75º F (18.33º -23.09º C). The stigma is receptive 18 hours
before full flower opening and, some say, for 72 hours after.
Climate
The
mango is naturally adapted to tropical lowlands between 25ºN and
25ºS of the Equator and up to elevations of 3,000 ft (915 m). It is
grown as a dooryard tree at slightly cooler altitudes but is apt to
suffer cold damage. The amount of rainfall is not as critical as when
it occurs. The best climate for mango has rainfall of 30 to 100 in
(75-250 cm) in the four summer months (June to September) followed by 8
months of dry season. This crop is well suited to irrigated regions
bordering the desert frontier in Egypt. Nevertheless, the tree
flourishes in southern Florida's approximately 5 months of
intermittent, scattered rains (October to February), 3 months of
drought (usually March to May) and 4 months of frequently heavy rains
(June to September).
Rain, heavy dews or fog during the blooming
season (November to March in Florida) are deleterious, stimulating tree
growth but interfering with flower production and encouraging fungus
diseases of the inflorescence and fruit. In Queensland, dry areas with
rainfall of 40 in (100 cm), 75% of which occurs from January to March,
are favored for mango growing because vegetative growth is inhibited
and the fruits are well exposed to the sun from August to December,
become well colored, and are relatively free of disease. Strong winds
during the fruiting season cause many fruits to fall prematurely.
Soil
The
mango tree is not too particular as to soil type, providing it has good
drainage. Rich, deep loam certainly contributes to maximum growth, but
if the soil is too rich and moist and too well fertilized, the tree
will respond vegetatively but will be deficient in flowering and
fruiting. The mango performs very well in sand, gravel, and even
oolitic limestone (as in southern Florida and the Bahamas).
A
polyembryonic seedling, 'No. 13-1', introduced into Israel from Egypt
in 1931, has been tested since the early 1960's in various regions of
the country for tolerance of calcareous soils and saline conditions. It
has done so well in sand with a medium (15%) lime content and highly
saline irrigation water (over 600 ppm) that it has been adopted as the
standard rootstock in commercial plantings in salty, limestone
districts of Israel. Where the lime content is above 30%, iron chelates
are added.
Propagation
Mango
trees grow readily from seed. Germination rate and vigor of seedlings
are highest when seeds are taken from fruits that are fully ripe, not
still firm. Also, the seed should be fresh, not dried. If the seed
cannot be planted within a few days after its removal from the fruit,
it can be covered with moist earth, sand, or sawdust in a container
until it can be planted, or kept in charcoal dust in a dessicator with
50% relative humidity. Seeds stored in the latter manner have shown 80%
viability even after 70 days. High rates of germination are obtained if
seeds are stored in polyethylene bags but the seedling behavior may be
poor. Inclusion of sphagnum moss in the sack has no benefit and shows
inferior rates of germination over 2- to 4-week periods, and none at
all at 6 weeks.
The flesh should be completely removed. Then the
husk is opened by carefully paring around the convex edge with a sharp
knife and taking care not to cut the kernel, which will readily slide
out. Husk removal speeds germination and avoids cramping of roots, and
also permits discovery and removal of the larva of the seed weevil in
areas where this pest is prevalent. Finally, the husked kernels are
treated with fungicide and planted without delay. The beds must have
solid bottoms to prevent excessive taproot growth, otherwise the
taproot will become 18 to 24 in (45-60 cm) long while the top will be
only one third to a half as high, and the seedling will be difficult to
transplant with any assurance of survival. The seed is placed on its
ventral (concave) edge with 1/4 protruding above the sand. Sprouting
occurs in 8 to 14 days in a warm, tropical climate; 3 weeks in cooler
climates. Seedlings generally take 6 years to fruit and 15 years to
attain optimum yield for evaluation.
However, the fruits of
seedlings may not resemble those of the parent tree. Most Indian mangos
are monoembryonic; that is, the embryo usually produces a single
sprout, a natural hybrid from accidental crossing, and the resulting
fruit may be inferior, superior, or equal to that of the tree from
which the seed came. Mangos of Southeast Asia are mostly polyembryonic.
In these, generally, one of the embryos in the seed is a hybrid; the
others (up to 4) are vegetative growths which faithfully reproduce the
characteristics of the parent. The distinction is not absolute, and
occasionally a seed supposedly of one class may behave like the other.
Seeds
of polyembryonic mangos are most convenient for local and international
distribution of desirable varieties. However, in order to reproduce and
share the superior monoembryonic selections, vegetative propagation is
necessary. Inarching and approach-grafting are traditional in India.
Tongue-, saddle-, and root-grafting (stooling) are also common Indian
practices. Shield- and patch-grafting have given up to 70% success but
the Forkert system of budding has been found even more practical. After
many systems were tried, veneer grafting was adopted in Florida in the
mid-1950's.
Choice of rootstock is important. Use of seedlings
of unknown parentage has resulted in great variability in a single
cultivar. Some have believed that polyembryonic rootstocks are better
than monoembryonic, but this is not necessarily so. In trials at Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, 10-year-old trees of 'Neelum' grafted on
polyembryonic 'Bapakkai' showed vigor and spread of tree and
productivity far superior to those grafted on 'Olour' which is also
polyembryonic. Those grafted on monoembryonic rootstock also showed
better growth and yield than those on 'Olour'. In 1981, experimenters
at Lucknow, India, reported the economic advantage of "stone-grafting",
which requires less space in the nursery and results in greater
uniformity. Scions from the spring flush of selected cultivars are
defoliated and, after a 10-day delay, are cleft-grafted on 5-day-old
seedlings which must thereafter be kept in the shade and protected from
drastic changes in the weather.
Old trees of inferior types are
top-worked to better cultivars by either side-grafting or
crown-grafting the beheaded trunk or beheaded main branches. Such trees
need protection from sunburn until the graft affords shade. In South
Africa, the trunks are whitewashed and bunches of dry grass are tied
onto cut branch ends. The trees will bear in 2 to 3 years. Attempts to
grow 3 or 4 varieties on one rootstock may appear to succeed for a
while but the strongest always outgrows the others.
Cuttings, even
when treated with growth regulators, are only 40% successful. Best
results are obtained with cuttings of mature trees, ringed 40 days
before detachment, treated, and rooted under mist. But neither cuttings
nor air layers develop good root systems and are not practical for
establishing plantations. Clonal propagation through tissue culture is
in the experimental stage.
In spite of vegetative propagation,
mutations arise in the form of bud sports. The fruit may differ
radically from the others on a grafted tree-perhaps larger and
superior-and the foliage on the branch may be quite unlike that on
other branches.
Dwarfing
Reduction
in the size of mango trees would be a most desirable goal for the
commercial and private planter. It would greatly assist harvesting and
also would make it possible for the homeowner to maintain trees of
different fruiting seasons in limited space.
In India,
double-grafting has been found to dwarf mango trees and induce early
fruiting. Naturally dwarf hybrids such as 'Julie' have been developed.
The polyembryonic Indian cultivars, 'Olour' and 'Vellai Colamban', when
used as rootstocks, have a dwarfing effect; so has the polyembryonic
'Sabre' in experiments in Israel and South Africa.
In Peru, the
polyembryonic 'Manzo de Ica', is used as rootstock; in Colombia,
'Hilaza' and 'Puerco'. 'Kaew' is utilized in Thailand.
Culture
About
6 weeks before transplanting either a seedling or a grafted tree, the
taproot should be cut back to about 12 in (30 cm). This encourages
feeder-root development in the field. For a week before setting out,
the plants should be exposed to full morning sun.
Inasmuch as
mango trees vary in lateral dimensions, spacing depends on the habit of
the cultivar and the type of soil, and may vary from 34 to 60 ft
(10.5-18 m) between trees. Closer planting will ultimately reduce the
crop. A spacing of 34 x 34 ft (10.5 x l0.5 m) allows 35 trees per acre
(86 per ha); 50 x 50 ft (15.2 x l5.2 m) allows only 18 trees per acre
(44.5 per ha). In Florida's limestone, one commercial grower maintains
100 trees per acre (247 per ha), controlling size by hedging and
topping.
The young trees should be placed in prepared and
enriched holes at least 2 ft (60 cm) deep and wide, and 3/4 of the top
should be cut off. In commercial groves in southern Florida, the trees
are set at the intersection of cross trenches mechanically cut through
the limestone.
Mangos require high nitrogen fertilization in the
early years but after they begin to bear, the fertilizer should be
higher in phosphate and potash. A 5-8-10 fertilizer mix is recommended
and applied 2 or 3, or possibly even 4, times a year at the rate of 1
lb (454 g) per year of age at each dressing. Fertilizer formulas will
vary with the type of soil. In sandy acid soils, excess nitrogen
contributes to "soft nose" breakdown of the fruits. This can be
counteracted by adding calcium. On organic soils (muck and peat),
nitrogen may be omitted entirely. In India, fertilizer is applied at an
increasing rate until the tree is rather old, and then it is
discontinued. Ground fertilizers are supplemented by foliar nutrients
including zinc, manganese and copper. Iron deficiency is corrected by
small applications of chelated iron.
Indian growers generally
irrigate the trees only the first 3 or 4 years while the taproot is
developing and before it has reached the water table. However, in
commercial plantations, irrigation of bearing trees is withheld only
for the 2 or 3 months prior to flowering. When the blooms appear, the
tree is given a heavy watering and this is repeated monthly until the
rains begin. In Florida groves, irrigation is by means of overhead
sprinklers which also provide frost protection when needed.
Usually
no pruning is done until the 4th year, and then only to improve the
form and this is done right after the fruiting season. If topping is
practiced, the trees are cut at 14 ft (4.25 m) to facilitate both
spraying and harvesting. Grafted mangos may set fruit within a year or
two from planting. The trees are then too weak to bear a full crop and
the fruits should be thinned or completely removed.
Harvesting
Mangos
normally reach maturity in 4 to 5 months from flowering. Fruits of
"smudged" trees ripen several months before those of untreated trees.
Experts in the Philippines have demonstrated that 'Carabao' mangos
sprayed with ethephon (200 ppm) 54 days after full bloom can be
harvested 2 weeks later at recommended minimum maturity. The fruits
will be larger and heavier even though harvested 2 weeks before
untreated fruits. If sprayed at 68 days after full bloom and harvested
2 weeks after spraying, there will be an improvement in quality in
regard to soluble solids and titratable acidity.
When the mango
is full-grown and ready for picking, the stem will snap easily with a
slight pull. If a strong pull is necessary, the fruit is still somewhat
immature and should not be harvested. In the more or less red types of
mangos, an additional indication of maturity is the development of a
purplish-red blush at the base of the fruit. A long-poled picking bag
which holds no more than 4 fruits is commonly used by pickers. Falling
causes bruising and later spoiling. When low fruits are harvested with
clippers, it is desirable to leave a 4-inch (10 cm) stem to avoid the
spurt of milky/resinous sap that exudes if the stem is initially cut
close. Before packing, the stem is cut off 1/4 in (6 mm) from the base
of the fruit. In Queensland, after final clipping of the stem, the
fruits are placed stem-end-down to drain.
In a sophisticated
Florida operation, harvested fruits are put into tubs of water on
trucks in order to wash off the sap that exudes from the stem end. At
the packing house, the fruits are transferred from the tubs to bins,
graded and sized and packed in cartons ("lugs") of 8 to 20 each
depending on size. The cartons are made mechanically at the packing
house and hold 14 lbs (6.35 kg) of fruit. The filled cartons are
stacked on pallets and fork-lifted into refrigerated trucks with
temperature set at no less than 55º F (12.78º C) for transport
to distribution centers in major cities throughout the USA and Canada.
Yield
The
yield varies with the cultivar and the age of the tree. At 10 to 20
years, a good annual crop may be 200 to 300 fruits per tree. At twice
that age and over, the crop will be doubled. In Java, old trees have
been known to bear 1,000 to 1,500 fruits in a season. Some cultivars in
India bear 800 to 3,000 fruits in "on" years and, with good cultural
attention, yields of 5,000 fruits have been reported. There is a famous
mango, 'Pane Ka Aam' of Maharashtra and Khamgaon, India, with
"paper-thin" skin and fiberless flesh. One of the oldest of these
trees, well over 100 years of age, bears heavily 5 years out of 10 with
2 years of low yield. Average annual yield is 6,500 fruits; the highest
record is 29,000.
Reported annual yields for 6 cultivars in Puerto Rico are:
| 'Lippens' |
67,079 lbs per acre |
| 'Keitt' |
45,608
lbs per acre |
| 'Earlygold' |
42,310
lbs per acre |
| 'Parvin' |
38,369
lbs per acre |
| 'Haden' |
32,732
lbs per acre |
| 'Palmer' |
28,868
lbs per acre |
The number of lbs per acre is roughly the equivalent of kg per hectare.
Average
mango yield in Florida is said to be about 30,000 lbs/acre. One leading
commercial grower has reported his annual crop as 22,000 to 27,500
lbs/acre. One grower who has hedged and topped trees close-planted at
the rate of 100 per acre (41/ha) averages 14,000 to 19.000 lbs/acre.
Ripening
In
India, mangos are picked quite green to avoid bird damage and the
dealers layer them with rice straw in ventilated storage rooms over a
period of one week. Quality is improved by controlled temperatures
between 60º and 70º F (15º -21º C). In ripening trials
in Puerto Rico, the 'Edward' mango was harvested while deep-green,
dipped in hot water at 124º F (51º C) to control anthracnose,
sorted as to size, then stored for 15 days at 70º F (21º C)
with relative humidity of 85% to 90%. Those picked when more than 3 in
(7.5 cm) in diameter ripened satisfactorily and were of excellent
quality.
Ethylene treatment causes green mangos to develop full
color in 7 to 10 days depending on the degree of maturity, whereas
untreated fruits require 10 to 15 days. One of the advantages is that
there can be fewer pickings and the fruit color after treatment is more
uniform. Therefore, ethylene treatment is a common practice in Israel
for ripening fruits for the local market. Some growers in Florida
depend on ethylene treatment. Generally, 24 hours of exposure is
sufficient if the fruits are picked at the proper stage. It has been
determined that mangos have been picked prematurely if they require
more than 48 hours of ethylene treatment and are not fit for market.
Keeping
Quality and Storage
Washing
the fruits immediately after harvest is essential, as the sap which
leaks from the stem bums the skin of the fruit making black lesions
which lead to rotting.
Some cultivars, especially 'Bangalora',
'Alphonso', and 'Neelum' in India, have much better keeping quality
than others. In Bombay, 'Alphonso' has kept well for 4 weeks at 52º
F (11.11º C); 6 to 7 weeks at 45º F (7.22º C). Storage at
lower temperatures is detrimental inasmuch as mangos are very
susceptible to chilling injury. Any temperature below 55.4º F
(13º C) is damaging to 'Kent'. In Florida, this is regarded as the
optimum for 2 to 3 weeks storage. The best ripening temperatures are
70º to 75º F (21.11º-23.89º C).
Experiments in
Florida have demonstrated that 'Irwin', 'Tommy Atkins' and 'Kent'
mangos, held for 3 weeks at storage temperature of 55.4º F (13º
C), 98% to 100% relative humidity and atmospheric pressure of 76 or 152
mmHg, ripened thereafter with less decay at 69.8º F (21º C)
under normal atmospheric pressure, as compared with fruits stored at
the same temperature with normal atmospheric pressure. Those stored at
152 mmHg took 3 to 5 days longer to ripen than those stored at 76 mmHg.
Decay rates were 20% for 'Tommy Atkins' and 40% for 'Irwin'. Spoilage
from anthracnose has been reduced by immersion for 15 min in water at
125º F (51.67º C) or for 5 min at 132º F (55.56º C).
Dipping in 500 ppm maleic hydrazide for 1 min and storing at 89.6º
F (32º C) also retards decay but not loss of moisture. In South
Africa, mangos are submerged immediately after picking in a suspension
of benomyl for 5 min at 131º F (55º C) to control soft brown
rot.
In Australia, mature-green 'Kensington Pride' mangos have
been dipped in a 4% solution of calcium chloride under reduced pressure
(250 mm Hg) and then stored in containers at 77º F (25º C) in
ethylene-free atmosphere. Ripening was retarded by a week; that is, the
treated fruits ripened in 20 to 22 days whereas controls ripened in 12
to 14 days. Eating quality was equal except that the calcium-treated
fruits were found slightly higher in ascorbic acid.
Wrapping
fruits individually in heat-shrinkable plastic film has not retarded
decay in storage. The only benefit has been 3% less weight loss.
Coating with paraffin wax or fungicidal wax and storing at 68º to
89.6º F (20º -32º C) delays ripening 1 to 2 weeks and
prevents shriveling but interferes with full development of color.
Gamma
irradiation (30 Krad) causes ripening delay of 7 days in mangos stored
at room temperature. The irradiated fruits ripen normally and show no
adverse effect on quality. Irradiation has not yet been approved for
this purpose.
In India, large quantities of mangos are
transported to distant markets by rail. To avoid excessive heat buildup
and consequent spoilage, the fruits, padded with paper shavings, are
packed in ventilated wooden crates and loaded into ventilated wooden
boxcars. Relative humidity varies from 24% to 85% and temperature from
88º to 115º F (31.6º-46.6º C). These improved
conditions have proved superior to the conventional packing of the
fruits in Phoenix-palm-midrib or bamboo, or the newer pigeonpea-stem,
baskets padded with rice straw and mango leaves and transported in
steel boxcars, which has resulted in 20% to 30% losses from shriveling,
unshapeliness and spoilage.
Green seedling mangos, harvested in
India for commercial preparation of chutneys and pickles as well as for
table use, are stored for as long as 40 days at 42º to 45º F
(5.56º-7.22º C) with relative humidity of 85% to 99%. Some of
these may be diverted for table use after a 2-week ripening period at
62º to 65º F (16.67º -18.13º C).
Pests and
Diseases
The fruit flies, Dacus
ferrugineus and D.
zonatus, attack the mango in India; D. tryoni (now Strumeta tryoni) in
Queensland, and D.
dorsalis in the Philippines; Pardalaspis cosyra
in Kenya; and the fruit fly is the greatest enemy of the mango in
Central America. Because of the presence of the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa,
in Florida, all Florida mangos for interstate shipment or for export
must be fumigated or immersed in hot water at 115º F (46.11º C)
for 65 minutes.
In India, South Africa and Hawaii, mango seed weevils, Sternochetus (Cryptorhynchus) mangiferae and S. gravis,
are major pests, undetectable until the larvae tunnel their way out.
The leading predators of the tree in India are jassid hoppers (Idiocerus
spp.) variously attacking trunk and branches or foliage and flowers,
and causing shedding of young fruits. The honeydew they excrete on
leaves and flowers gives rise to sooty mold.
The mango-leaf webber, or "tent caterpillar", Orthaga euadrusalis,
has become a major problem in North India, especially in old, crowded
orchards where there is excessive shade. Around Lucknow, 'Dashehari' is
heavily infested by this pest; 'Samarbehist' ('Chausa') less. In South
Africa, 11 species of scales have been recorded on the fruits. Coccus mangiferae
and C. acuminatus
are the most common scale insects giving rise to the sooty mold that
grows on the honeydew excreted by the pests.
In some areas, there are occasional outbreaks of the scales, Pulvinaria psidii, P. polygonata, Aulacaspis
cinnamoni, A. tubercularis,
Aspidiotus destructor and Leucaspis indica.
In Florida, pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria
pyrformis, and Florida wax scale, Ceroplastes floridensis,
are common, and the lesser snow scale, Pinnaspis strachani,
infests the trunks of small trees and lower branches of large trees.
Heavy attacks may result in cracking of the bark and oozing of sap.
The citrus thrips, Scirtothrips
aurantii, blemishes the fruit in some mango-growing areas.
The red-banded thrips, Selenothrips
rubrocinctus, at times heavily infests mango foliage in
Florida, killing young leaves and causing shedding of mature leaves.
Mealybugs, Phenacoccus
citri and P.
mangiferae, and Drosicha
stebbingi and D.
mangiferae may infest young leaves, shoots and fruits. The
mango stem borer, Batocera
rufomaculata invades the trunk. Leaves and shoots are
preyed on by the caterpillars of Parasa
lepida, Chlumetia
transversa and Orthaga
exvinacea. Mites feed on mango leaves, flowers and young
fruits. In Florida, the most common is the avocado red mite, Paratetranychus yothersii.
Mistletoe (Loranthus
and Viscum
spp.) parasitizes and kills mango branches in India and tropical
America. Dr. B. Reddy, Regional Plant Production and Protection
Officer, FAO, Bangkok, compiled an extensive roster of insects, mites,
nematodes, other pests, fungi, bacteria and phanerogamic parasites in
Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region (1975).
One of the most serious diseases of the mango is powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae),
which is common in most growing areas of India, occurs mostly in March
and April in Florida. The fungus affects the flowers and causes young
fruits to dehydrate and fall, and 20% of the crop may be lost. It is
controllable by regular spraying. In humid climates, anthracnose caused
by Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides (Glomerella
cingulata)
affects flowers, leaves, twigs, fruits, both young and mature. The
latter show black spots externally and the corresponding flesh area is
affected.
Control measures must be taken in advance of flowering
and regularly during dry spells. In Florida, mango growers apply up to
20 sprayings up to the cut-off point before harvesting. The black spots
are similar to those produced by Alternaria
sp. often associated with anthracnose in cold storage in India. Inside
the fruits attacked by Alternaria
there are corresponding areas of hard, corky, spongy lesions. Inasmuch
as the fungus enters the stem-end of the fruit, it is combatted by
applying Fungicopper paste in linseed oil to the cut stem and also by
sterilizing the storage compartment with Formalin 1:20. A pre-harvest
dry stem-end rot was first noticed on 'Tommy Atkins' in Mexico in 1973,
and it has spread to all Mexican plantings of this cultivar causing
losses of 10-80% especially in wet weather. Fusarium, Alternaria and Cladosporium spp.
were prominent among associated fungi.
Malformation of inflorescence and vegetative buds is attributed to the
combined action of Fusarium
moniliforme and any of the mites, Aceria mangifera, Eriophyes
sp., Tyrophagus
castellanii, or Typhlodromus
asiaticus.
This grave problem occurs in Pakistan, India, South Africa and Egypt,
El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela, but not as yet in
the Philippines. It is on the increase in India. Removing and burning
the inflorescence has been the only remedy, but it has been found that
malformation can be reduced by a single spray of NAA (200 mg in 50 ml
alcohol with water added to make 1 liter) in October, and deblooming in
early January.
There are 14 types of mango galls in India, 12 occurring on the leaves.
The most serious is the axillary bud gall caused by Apsylla cistellata
of the family Psyllidae.
In Florida, leaf spot is caused by Pestalotia
mangiferae, Phyllosticta
mortoni, and Septoria
sp.; algal leaf spot, or green scurf by Cephaleuros virescens.
In 1983, a new disease, crusty leaf spot, caused by the fungus, Zimmermaniella trispora,
was reported as common on neglected mango trees in Malaya. Twig dieback
and dieback are from infection by Phomopsis
sp., Physalospora abdita,
and P. rhodina.
Wilt is caused by Verticillium
alboatrum; brown felt by Septobasidium pilosum
and S.
pseudopedicellatum; wood rot, by Polyporus sanguineus;
and scab by Elsinoe
mangiferae (Sphaceloma
mangiferae). Cercospora
mangiferae attacks the fruits in the Congo.
A
number of organisms in India cause white sap, heart rot, gray blight,
leaf blight, white pocket rot, white spongy rot, sap rot, black bark
and red rust. In South Africa, Asbergillus
attacks young shoots and fruit rot is caused by A. niger. Gloeosporium mangiferae
causes black spotting of fruits. Erwinia
mangiferae and Pseudomonas
mangiferaeindicae are sources of bacterial black spot in
South Africa and Queensland. Bacterium
carotovorus is a source of soft rot. Stem-end rot is a
major problem in India and Puerto Rico from infection by Physalospora rhodina
(Diplodia natalensis).
Soft brown rot develops during prolonged cold storage in South Africa.
Leaf
tip burn may be a sign of excess chlorides. Manganese deficiency is
indicated by paleness and limpness of foliage followed by yellowing,
with distinct green veins and midrib, fine brown spots and browning of
leaf tips. Inadequate zinc is evident in less noticeable paleness of
foliage, distortion of new shoots, small leaves, necrosis, and stunting
of the tree and its roots. In boron deficiency, there is reduced size
and distortion of new leaves and browning of the midrib. Copper
deficiency is seen in paleness of foliage and severe tip-bum with
gray-brown patches on old leaves; abnormally large leaves; also
die-back of terminal shoots; sometimes gummosis of twigs and branches.
Magnesium is needed when young trees are stunted and pale, new leaves
have yellow-white areas between the main veins and prominent yellow
specks on both sides of the midrib. There may also be browning of the
leaf tips and margins. Lack of iron produces chlorosis in young trees.
Fig.
61: Low-fiber mangoes are easily prepared for the table by first
cutting off the "cheeks" which can then be served for eating by
spooning the flesh from the "shell".
Food Uses
Mangos
should always be washed to remove any sap residue, before handling.
Some seedling mangos are so fibrous that they cannot be sliced;
instead, they are massaged, the stem-end is cut off, and the juice
squeezed from the fruit into the mouth. Non-fibrous mangos may be cut
in half to the stone, the two halves twisted in opposite directions to
free the stone which is then removed, and the halves served for eating
as appetizers or dessert. Or the two "cheeks" may be cut off, following
the contour of the stone, for similar use; then the remaining side
"fingers" of flesh are cut off for use in fruit cups, etc.
Most
people enjoy eating the residual flesh from the seed and this is done
most neatly by piercing the stem-end of the seed with the long central
tine of a mango fork, commonly sold in Mexico, and holding the seed
upright like a lollypop. Small mangos can be peeled and mounted on the
fork and eaten in the same manner. If the fruit is slightly fibrous
especially near the stone, it is best to peel and slice the flesh and
serve it as dessert, in fruit salad, on dry cereal, or in gelatin or
custards, or on ice cream. The ripe flesh may be spiced and preserved
in jars. Surplus ripe mangos are peeled, sliced and canned in sirup, or
made into jam, marmalade, jelly or nectar. The extracted pulpy juice of
fibrous types is used for making mango halva and mango leather.
Sometimes corn flour and tamarind seed jellose are mixed in. Mango
juice may be spray-dried and powdered and used in infant and invalid
foods, or reconstituted and drunk as a beverage. The dried juice,
blended with wheat flour has been made into "cereal" flakes, A
dehydrated mango custard powder has also been developed in India,
especially for use in baby foods.
Ripe mangos may be frozen
whole or peeled, sliced and packed in sugar (1 part sugar to 10 parts
mango by weight) and quick-frozen in moisture-proof containers. The
diced flesh of ripe mangos, bathed in sweetened or unsweetened lime
juice, to prevent discoloration, can be quick-frozen, as can sweetened
ripe or green mango puree. Immature mangos are often blown down by
spring winds. Half-ripe or green mangos are peeled and sliced as
filling for pie, used for jelly, or made into sauce which, with added
milk and egg whites, can be converted into mango sherbet. Green mangos
are peeled, sliced, parboiled, then combined with sugar, salt, various
spices and cooked, sometimes with raisins or other fruits, to make
chutney; or they may be salted, sun-dried and kept for use in chutney
and pickles. Thin slices, seasoned with turmeric, are dried, and
sometimes powdered, and used to impart an acid flavor to chutneys,
vegetables and soup. Green or ripe mangos may be used to make relish.
In Thailand, green-skinned mangos
of a class called "keo", with sweet, nearly fiberless flesh and very
commonly grown and inexpensive on the market, are soaked whole for 15
days in salted water before peeling, slicing and serving with sugar.
Processing
of mangos for export is of great importance in Hawaii in view of the
restrictions on exporting the fresh fruits. Hawaiian technologists have
developed methods for steam- and lye-peeling, also devices for removing
peel from unpeeled fruits in the preparation of nectar. Choice of
suitable cultivars is an essential factor in processing mangos for
different purposes.
The Food Research Institute of the Canada
Department of Agriculture has developed methods of preserving ripe or
green mango slices by osmotic dehydration.
The fresh kernel of
the mango seed (stone) constitutes 13% of the weight of the fruit, 55%
to 65% of the weight of the stone. The kernel is a major by-product of
the mango-processing industry. In times of food scarcity in India, the
kernels are roasted or boiled and eaten. After soaking to dispel the
astringency (tannins), the kernels are dried and ground to flour which
is mixed with wheat or rice flour to make bread and it is also used in
puddings.
The fat extracted from the kernel is white, solid like
cocoa butter and tallow, edible, and has been proposed as a substitute
for cocoa butter in chocolate.
The peel constitutes 20% to 25%
of the total weight of the fruit. Researchers in India have shown that
the peel can be utilized as a source of pectin. Average yield on a
dry-weight basis is 13%.
Immature mango leaves are cooked and eaten in Indonesia and the
Philippines.
Fig.
62: The long center tine of the mango fork is designed for piercing the
base of the center section and right through the seed. With the strip
of peel removed, the most flavorful flesh around the seed can be
enjoyed like a lollipop.
| Food
Value Per 100 g of Ripe Mango Flesh* |
| Fruit |
| Calories |
62.1-63.7 |
| Moisture |
78.9-82.8 g |
| Protein |
0.36-0.40 g |
| Fat |
0.30-0.53 g |
| Carbohydrates |
16.20-17.18 g |
| Fiber |
0.85-1.06 g |
| Ash |
0.34-0.52 g |
| Calcium |
6.1-12.8 mg |
| Phosphorus |
5.5-17.9
mg |
| Iron |
0.20-0.63 mg |
| Vitamin A (carotene) |
0.135-1.872 mg |
| Thiamine |
0.020-0.073 mg |
| Riboflavin |
0.025-0.068 mg |
| Niacin |
0.025-0.707 mg |
| Ascorbic Acid |
7.8-172.0 mg |
| Tryptophan |
3-6 mg |
| Methionine |
4 mg |
| Lysine |
32-37 mg |
*Minimum and maximum levels of food constituents derived from various
analyses made in Cuba, Central America, Africa and India. |
|
Puerto
Rican analyses of 30 cultivars showed b-carotene as ranging from a low
of 4,171 I.U./100 g in 'Stringless Peach' to a high of 7,900 I.U. in
'Carrie'. Ascorbic acid ranged from 3.43 mg/100 g in 'Keitt' to 62.96
in 'Julie'.
| Seed Kernel** |
| Moisture |
10.55-11.35% |
| Protein |
4.76-8.5% |
| Fat |
6-15% |
| Starch |
40-72% |
| Sugar |
1.07% |
| Fiber |
1.17-2.6% |
| Ash |
1.72-3.66% |
| Silica |
0.41% |
| Iron |
0.03% |
| Calcium |
0.11-0.23% |
| Magnesium |
0.34% |
| Phosphorus |
0.21-0.66% |
| Sodium |
0.28% |
| Potassium |
1.31% |
| Sulfur |
0.23% |
| Carbonate |
0.09% |
**According to analyses made in India and Cuba. |
|
Indian
analyses of the mango kernel reveal the amino acids–alanine,
arginine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine,
isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline,
serine, threonine, tyrosine, valine, at levels lower than in wheat and
gluten. Tannin content may be 0.12-0.18% or much higher in certain
cultivars.
Fig.
63: 'Black Cold' mangoes, dark-green externally when ripe, are partly
peeled like "radish roses" on the Bangkok market to show their yellow,
fiberless flesh.
| Food
Value (continued) |
| Kernel Flour* |
| Protein |
5.56% |
| Fat |
16.17% |
| Carbohydrates |
69.2% |
| Ash
(minerals) |
0.35% |
*It is said to be equal to rice in food value, if tannin-free. |
| Kernerl Fat |
| Fully
saturated glycerides |
14.2% |
| Mono-oleoglycerides |
24.2% |
| Di-oleoglycerides |
60.8% |
| Tri-unsaturated
glycerides |
0.8% |
| Fatty Acids: |
| Mysristic |
0.69% |
| Palmitic |
4.4-8.83% |
| Stearic
|
33.96-47.8% |
| Arachidic |
2.7-6.74% |
| Oleic |
38.2-49.78% |
| Linoleic
|
4.4-5.4% |
| Linolenic |
0.05% |
| Leaves (immature) |
| Moisture |
78.2% |
| Protein |
3.0% |
| Fat |
0.4% |
| Carbohydrates |
16.5% |
| Fiber
|
1.6% |
| Ash |
1.9% |
| Calcium
|
29
mg/100 g |
| Phosphorus |
72
mg |
| Iron |
6.2
mg |
| Vitamin
A (carotene) ß |
1,490
I.U. |
| Thiamine |
0.04
mg |
| Riboflavin |
0.06
mg |
| Niacin |
2.2
mg |
| Ascorbic
Acid** |
53
mg/100g |
**According to various analyses made in India. |
|
Fig.
64: A low-fiber, green-skinned mango on the market in Merida, Yucatan,
is mounted on a lollipop stick. The fruit may be peeled and the flesh
deeply cut to resemble the petals of a flower.
Toxicity
The
sap which exudes from the stalk close to the base of the fruit is
somewhat milky at first, also yellowish-resinous. It becomes
pale-yellow and translucent when dried. It contains mangiferen,
resinous acid, mangiferic acid, and the resinol, mangiferol. It, like
the sap of the trunk and branches and the skin of the unripe fruit, is
a potent skin irritant, and capable of blistering the skin of the
normal individual. As with poison ivy, there is typically a delayed
reaction. Hypersensitive persons may react with considerable swelling
of the eyelids, the face, and other parts of the body. They may not be
able to handle, peel, or eat mangos or any food containing mango flesh
or juice. A good precaution is to use one knife to peel the mango, and
a clean knife to slice the flesh to avoid contaminating the flesh with
any of the resin in the peel.
The leaves contain the glucoside,
mangiferine. In India, cows were formerly fed mango leaves to obtain
from their urine euxanthic acid which is rich yellow and has been used
as a dye. Since continuous intake of the leaves may be fatal, the
practice has been outlawed.
When mango trees are in bloom, it is
not uncommon for people to suffer itching around the eyes, facial
swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there is no airborne
pollen. The few pollen grains are large and they tend to adhere to each
other even in dry weather. The stigma is small and not designed to
catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the vaporized
essential oil of the flowers which contains the sesquiterpene alcohol,
mangiferol, and the ketone, mangiferone.
Mango wood should never be used in fireplaces or for cooking fuel, as
its smoke is highly irritant.
Other Uses
Seed kernels:
After soaking and drying to 10% moisture content, the kernels are fed
to poultry and cattle. Without the removal of tannins, the feeding
value is low. Cuban scientists declare that the mineral levels are so
low mineral supplementation is needed if the kernel is used for poultry
feed, for which purpose it is recommended mainly because it has little
crude fiber.
Seed fat:
Having high stearic acid content, the fat is desirable for soap-making.
The seed residue after fat extraction is usable for cattle feed and
soil enrichment.
A mango stone decorticator has been designed
and successfully operated by the Agricultural Engineering Department of
Pantnagar University, India.
Wood:
The wood is kiln-dried or seasoned in saltwater. It is gray or
greenish-brown, coarse-textured, medium-strong, hard, durable in water
but not in the ground; easy to work and finishes well. In India, after
preservative treatment, it is used for rafters and joists, window
frames, agricultural implements, boats, plywood, shoe heels and boxes,
including crates for shipping tins of cashew kernels. It makes
excellent charcoal.
Bark:
The bark possesses 16% to 20% tannin and has been employed for tanning
hides. It yields a yellow dye, or, with turmeric and lime, a bright
rose-pink.
Gum:
A
somewhat resinous, red-brown gum from the trunk is used for mending
crockery in tropical Africa. In India, it is sold as a substitute for
gum arabic.
Medicinal
Uses:
Dried mango flowers, containing 15% tannin, serve as astringents in
cases of diarrhea, chronic dysentery, catarrh of the bladder and
chronic urethritis resulting from gonorrhea. The bark contains
mangiferine and is astringent and employed against rheumatism and
diphtheria in India. The resinous gum from the trunk is applied on
cracks in the skin of the feet and on scabies, and is believed helpful
in cases of syphilis.
Mango kernel decoction and powder (not
tannin-free) are used as vermifuges and as astringents in diarrhea,
hemorrhages and bleeding hemorrhoids. The fat is administered in cases
of stomatitis. Extracts of unripe fruits and of bark, stems and leaves
have shown antibiotic activity. In some of the islands of the
Caribbean, the leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diarrhea, fever,
chest complaints, diabetes, hypertension and other ills. A combined
decoction of mango and other leaves is taken after childbirth.
Fig. 65: Mango trees produce massive sprays of reddish or yellowish
flowers but only a few fruits develop from each spray.
Related
Species
Of approximately 40 other species of Mangifera, a few
are cultivated for their fruits and several have been employed as
rootstocks for the mango in Malaya.
M. sylvatica
Roxb., is a large tree to 150 ft (45 m) growing wild in the eastern
Himalayas, Nepal and the Andaman Islands, from 980 to 4,200 ft
(300-1,300 m). The elliptic fruit, 3 1/4 to 4 in (8-10 cm) long, has
yellow skin and fiberless, though rather thin, flesh. It is mostly
utilized while still unripe for pickles and other preserves. The tree
is valued mainly for its timber which is largely sapwood, light in
weight and easily worked but medium-hard and strong.
M. foetida
Lour., the horse mango, is a handsome, well-formed tree, 60 to 80 ft
(18-24 m) tall with very stiff leaves and showy particles of pink-red,
odorless flowers. The fruit is oblong, 3 to 5 1/2 in (7.5-16 cm) long,
plump, with yellowish- or grayish-green skin when ripe. The flesh is
variable, in some types orange, acid, strongly turpentine-scented; in
others, pale-yellow, sweet in flavor and mildly aromatic. All types are
fibrous and the stone has much fiber. Sweet types are eaten raw when
ripe; others are used for pickles, chutneys and in curries. The sap of
the tree and the immature fruit is highly irritating.
M. caesia
Jack, ranging from 65 to 150 ft (20-45 m) at low altitudes in Malaysia
and the Philippines, is frequently cultivated in Indonesia. The flowers
are blue or lavender. Strongly and, to some people, unpleasantly
aromatic, the fruit is oval to pear-shaped, 4 1/4 to 6 in (11-15 cm)
long, with thin, pale-green or light-brown, scurfy skin which clings to
the white or pale-yellow, juicy, fibrous flesh. Quality is highly
variable; some types being subacid to sweet and agreeable and these are
commonly eaten in Malaya. The seed is large and pink, enclosed in
matted fibers; edible; monoembryonic. Young leaves are eaten raw. The
sap of the tree and immature fruits is exceedingly irritant.
M. odorata
Griff. is a medium to large tree, 60 to 80 ft (15-24 m) high, better
suited than the mango to humid regions and much cultivated from Malaya
to the Philippines where it is more familiar than the mango in eastern
Mindanao. The flowers are whitish to yellowish and very fragrant. The
fruit is round-oblique, somewhat oblate; to 5 in (12.5 cm) long, plump,
with green or yellow-green, thick, tough skin. When ripe the flesh is
pale-orange or yellowish, fibrous and resinous but juicy and sweet,
though most types are distinctly turpentine -flavored. Nevertheless,
all types are popular for curries and pickles. The stone is large with
many coarse fibers. The sap of this tree is said to be fairly mild, but
the milky sap of the immature fruit extremely acrid.
In addition to the above, Malayan villagers occasionally cultivate some
lesser-known species: M.
longipetiolata King, M.
maingayi Hook f., M.
kemanga Blume, and M.
pentandra Hook f.
The gandaria, Plate XXIX, Bouea
gandaria Blume (syn. B.
macrophylla
Griff.), is also called kundangan, kundang, setar, star and rumia in
Malaya; gandareed in Java; ma-prang in Thailand. The tree, usually to
30 ft (9 m), sometimes to 60 ft (18 m), is short-trunked with resinous
sap, drooping branches and evergreen, opposite, resinous, leathery,
downward-pointing leaves 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, 2 to 4 1/2 in
(5-11.25 cm) wide. They are purple-red and silky when they first
appear. Small, greenish flowers are borne in pendent panicles to 5 in
(12.5 cm) in length. The fruit, like a miniature mango, is oval, round
or oblong-ovoid, 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) long, with thin, smooth,
brittle, edible skin, yellow or apricot-colored when ripe. The yellow
or orange pulp is juicy, varies from acid to sweet, and adheres to the
leathery, whiskered stone. There is great variation in the fruits of
seedling trees, especially in the degree of "turpentine" odor. The tree
is native to Malaya and Sumatra; is frequently cultivated, either from
seed or air-layers, in its natural range and also rather widely through
Malaysia and the fruits are sold in markets. They are made into jam and
chutney. When still immature, they are pickled in brine and used in
curries. In Indonesia, the young leaves are marketed and eaten raw with
rice. Budwood of a cultivar named 'Wan', meaning "sweet", was obtained
by William F. Whitman from an orchard near Bangkok in 1967. His
resulting grafted tree, in a protected location in South Florida,
fruited in 1974. Earlier introductions (1935, 1936 and 1938) by the
Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead failed to
survive.
A lesser species, B.
oppositifolia Adelb. (syn. B. microphylla
Griff.), is called plum mango, rembunia, gemis, or rumia in Malaya;
ma-pring in Thailand. The tree is similar but deciduous, smaller in all
its parts, and the fruit is orange or yellow and only 1 in (2.5 cm)
long, acid and usually cooked when half-ripe. This species is abundant
wild in lowland forests of Malaya and much cultivated as a shade tree.
The wood is hard and very heavy, sinks in water, and is used for
houseposts.
Food Value
Fruits from a 20-year-old gandaria tree (Bouea gandaria
Blume) in the Lancetilla Experimental Garden, Tela, Honduras, were
analyzed in 1950 and the following values were reported:
| Food
Value Per
100 g of Edible Portion* |
| Moisture |
85.2 g |
| Protein |
0.112 g |
| Fat |
0.04g |
| Fiber |
0.6 g |
| Ash |
0.23 g |
| Calcium |
6.0 mg |
| Phosphorus |
10.8 mg |
| Iron |
0.31 mg |
| Carotene |
0.043 mg |
| Thiamine |
0.031 mg |
| Riboflavin |
0.025 mg |
| Niacin |
0.286 mg |
| Ascorbic Acid |
75.0 mg |
|
|
|